Hypersonic aircrafts are capable of flying at speeds in excess of Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound). Their development poses major technical and scientific challenges due to the extreme conditions encountered at these speeds.

I. Introduction

Definition of hypersonics:

Hypersonics refers to a flight regime in which an object travels at a speed greater than Mach 5, i.e. five times the speed of sound in air at standard altitudes. To put this into perspective, at an altitude of 20,000 feet (around 6,096 meters), the speed of sound is around 1,195 km/h. So, for an aircraft to be considered hypersonic, it would have to fly at a speed of over 5,975 km/h at this altitude. These speeds generate distinct aerodynamic, thermal and physical phenomena not commonly observed in subsonic, transonic or even supersonic flight regimes.

A brief history of hypersonic aircrafts:

The first experiments with hypersonic vehicles date back to the 1940s and 1950s. One of the most notable initiatives of this era was NASA’s X-15 program. Launched in the 1950s, the rocket-powered North American X-15 set several speed and altitude records, reaching speeds of up to Mach 6.7.

Over the years, efforts in hypersonic technology have increased, with projects such as the Boeing X-51 WaveRider, which demonstrated scramjet propulsion (a type of engine designed to operate at hypersonic speeds) in 2013. These initiatives have laid the technological foundations for future developments.

The importance of hypersonic aircrafts for transport and defense:

Hypersonic aircraft have the potential to revolutionize air transport and defense. In terms of transport, a hypersonic aircraft could significantly reduce flight times between continents. Imagine flying from New York to Tokyo in just two hours! This could reshape the travel industry, making the world even more interconnected.

On the defense side, hypersonic aircraft and missiles offer considerable strategic advantages. Their exceptional speed makes them extremely difficult for existing air defense systems to detect, intercept and neutralize. What’s more, their ability to reach a target quickly makes them a major tool for deterrence and military action.

II. Hypersonic fundamentals

Flight regimes: from subsonic to hypersonic:

Atmospheric flight is traditionally classified into several regimes, based on the object’s speed relative to the speed of sound:

Subsonic: Subsonic speeds are below Mach 1. In this regime, the air ahead of a moving object has time to “spread out” before the object arrives, resulting in predictable and regular fluid disturbances.

Transonic: This is the regime where the object is moving at a speed close to Mach 1. In this regime, some parts of the airflow around the object may be subsonic, while others may be supersonic. This is a complex transition zone.

Supersonic: In this regime, which covers Mach 1 to Mach 5, the object moves faster than sound. This leads to the formation of shock waves, which are essentially sudden, intense compressions of air.

Hypersonic: At speeds above Mach 5, we enter the hypersonic regime. Here, aerodynamic and thermal phenomena are intensified, with stronger shock waves and dominant thermal effects.
Gas dynamics and shockwave phenomena:

When an object moves at supersonic and hypersonic speeds, it compresses the air in front of it, creating a shock wave. This wave is essentially an abrupt boundary where the air rapidly changes speed, pressure and temperature. In the hypersonic regime, these shockwaves are more intense and can overlap, creating complex patterns.

Gas dynamics play a crucial role here. At these high velocities, air is no longer considered an incompressible gas. The Navier-Stokes equations, used to model fluid flow, have to be adapted to take account of compressibility, thermal effects and sometimes even chemical effects (air can dissociate or react at these high temperatures).

Thermal and aerodynamic effects at high speeds:

At hypersonic speeds, the friction between the air and the surface of the object, as well as the compression of the air by shock waves, generate enormous amounts of heat. This heat can raise the temperature of the aircraft’s surface to levels where conventional materials weaken or decompose.

What’s more, at these speeds, air can begin to dissociate into ions and radicals, which can affect the way it interacts with the aircraft. This can affect the aircraft’s lift, drag and stability.

Thus, hypersonic design is not just about maximizing speed, but also about managing extreme thermal effects, understanding high-temperature gas chemistry and adapting to the unique aerodynamic phenomena of this regime.

III. Technical and technological challenges

Materials and structures:

Thermal resistance and ablation: At hypersonic speeds, the aircraft surface is subjected to extreme temperatures due to friction and shock waves. The materials used must not only withstand these high temperatures, but also maintain their structural integrity. Ablation, where the material surface deteriorates or vaporizes, is a major challenge, and materials must be designed to minimize this effect.

High-temperature fatigue: Beyond simple heat resistance, materials must also resist thermal fatigue. With rapid temperature fluctuations, materials can expand and contract, causing micro-cracks and, ultimately, structural failure.

Thermal insulation: To protect sensitive components and the crew, effective thermal insulation is necessary. This can include specialized layers or heat shields to reflect, absorb or disperse heat.

Propulsion:

Scramjet and ramjet engines: These engines are designed to operate at supersonic and hypersonic speeds. Unlike traditional jet engines, they do not use turbines to compress the air. Ramjets work well at supersonic speeds, while scramjets are adapted to hypersonic speeds, allowing air to pass through the engine at supersonic speeds.

High-speed combustion: At these speeds, ensuring stable combustion is a challenge. Air moves so fast that it can extinguish flames. Research is focused on ensuring efficient, stable combustion despite these conditions.

Aeropropulsion integration: This refers to the fusion of the aircraft’s aerodynamic design with its propulsion systems, ensuring that one complements the other for optimum performance.

Aerodynamic design:

Optimal shapes to reduce drag: Drag, or resistance to forward motion, increases drastically at hypersonic speeds. Aircraft must therefore be designed with optimum shapes to minimize this drag while guaranteeing stability and maneuverability.

Shock wave and boundary layer management: The formation and interaction of shock waves can affect lift, drag and aircraft stability. Engineers must therefore design aircraft capable of managing these shock waves and the effects of associated boundary layers.

Avionics and control systems:

Sensors adapted to the hypersonic environment: Hypersonic conditions can render some traditional sensors inoperative. Specialized sensors capable of operating in extreme conditions are therefore required.

Robust control algorithms: At hypersonic speeds, error margins are slim. Control algorithms must therefore be extremely robust and fast to ensure stability and maneuverability.

Protection against radiation and interference: At high altitudes and hypersonic speeds, the aircraft may be exposed to increased levels of solar or cosmic radiation. In addition, electromagnetic effects due to friction can create interference. Avionic systems must be protected against these phenomena.

IV. Applications and prospects

Civil transport:

Hypersonic airliners for long-haul flights: With the development of hypersonic technologies, we may one day see airliners capable of covering intercontinental distances in just a few hours, compared with a dozen hours today with subsonic aircraft. These aircraft could revolutionize air transport, making the world even more accessible.

Advantages and disadvantages for passengers:
Advantages: The most obvious benefit is time savings. Long transcontinental or transoceanic flights could be reduced to a few hours. What’s more, by flying at higher altitudes, hypersonic aircraft could offer spectacular views.
Disadvantages: Hypersonic flights could be more expensive due to advanced technologies and operational costs. In addition, the g-forces associated with acceleration and deceleration could be uncomfortable for some passengers. Finally, the environmental impact of hypersonic aircraft, particularly in terms of emissions, remains a concern.

Military:

Hypersonic missiles: These missiles are designed to reach their targets in record time, making defense against them extremely difficult. They can also be used to strike strategic targets with surgical precision, reducing the risk of collateral damage.

Reconnaissance and interception aircraft: Hypersonic aircraft could enable the military to conduct reconnaissance missions at unprecedented speed, capturing intelligence in real time. What’s more, these aircraft could intercept opposing air threats before they can reach their targets.

Space exploration:

Reusable launch vehicles: Hypersonic technology could facilitate the development of reusable space vehicles, capable of launching payloads into orbit and returning to Earth. Such vehicles could make access to space more economical and more frequent.

Controlled atmospheric re-entry: During re-entry, space vehicles enter the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds. A better understanding and mastery of hypersonic technology could enable a safer and more precise atmospheric return, reducing the risks associated with atmospheric re-entry.

While hypersonic technology is still under development, its potential applications could have a significant impact on a variety of sectors, from civil transport to space exploration. With continued advances in research and development, the hypersonic era could soon become a reality.

V. Ethical and environmental issues

Noise pollution: the sonic boom:

When an aircraft exceeds the speed of sound, it creates what is known as a “sonic boom”, an audible shock wave that can be very noisy and potentially disruptive to those on the ground. The sonic boom has several implications:

Disturbance to wildlife: Studies have shown that noise can affect animal behavior, disrupting feeding, breeding or migration patterns.

Impact on human communities: Sonic booms can cause disturbance, stress and nuisance to people on the ground, particularly in densely populated areas. They can also cause structural damage, such as broken windows.

Regulatory limitations: Because of these concerns, many countries have restrictions on supersonic flights over inhabited land, which could limit the commercial usefulness of hypersonic aircraft for passenger transport.

Emissions and climate impact:

Here’s what you need to know about fuel consumption and emissions at high altitude:

Fuel consumption: Hypersonic aircraft consume huge amounts of fuel, especially when accelerating to hypersonic speeds. This can result in significantly higher CO2 emissions per passenger-kilometer than subsonic aircraft.

High-altitude emissions: Hypersonic aircraft fly at higher altitudes than conventional aircraft. Emissions at these altitudes can have different and potentially more harmful effects on the atmosphere, including the formation of cirrus clouds that can trap heat.

Geopolitical considerations linked to the proliferation of hypersonic weapons:

Geopolitical considerations:

Potential destabilization: Hypersonic missiles can reach their targets in an incredibly short time, reducing reaction time for defense. This could encourage nations to adopt a more offensive posture, using these weapons before the enemy does.

Treaties and agreements: The proliferation of these technologies could challenge existing arms treaties and require new agreements to limit the spread and use of these weapons.

Arms race: If one nation develops and deploys hypersonic weapons, its adversaries may feel compelled to follow suit, potentially triggering a new arms race.

The place of hypersonics in the future of aerospace

Hypersonic flight, symbolized by speeds well in excess of the speed of sound, undoubtedly represents one of the boldest and most exciting frontiers of the modern aerospace industry. Like every major technological advance, it offers a mixture of promise and challenge.

On the one hand, hypersonics has the potential to revolutionize air transport, making intercontinental travel as fast as today’s domestic routes. In the military field, hypersonic weapons can offer unprecedented attack and defense capabilities. For space exploration, mastery of hypersonic technologies could simplify and economize the launch and return of space vehicles.

On the other hand, this technological advance raises important environmental and ethical questions. Environmental concerns, such as noise pollution and high-altitude emissions, as well as the geopolitical implications of hypersonic weapons proliferation, demand serious attention and regulation.

The place of hypersonics in the future of aerospace will largely be determined by how industry and regulators respond to these challenges. If environmental and ethical concerns can be satisfactorily addressed, hypersonics could occupy a central place in the evolution of aerospace in the 21st century, opening up new possibilities for travel, defense and space exploration.

Fly a jet fighter is the fighter jet experience specialist.